Establishment Of Diplomatic Relations Research Articles

Beyond revolutions: Mao-era China’s market entry strategies in Latin America

How did the People’s Republic of China develop commercial relations with the Global South during its Maoist years? This paper aims to explore the question through China’s market entry strategies in Latin America. Latin America posed significant challenges for Mao-era China in establishing robust relations. Under intense US pressure and the dominance of conservative politics, most Latin American nations maintained minimal commercial and political ties with China until 1971 when Beijing replaced Taipei in the UN. Notable exceptions were Cuba, following its armed revolution in 1959, and Chile, after its peaceful revolution in 1970, which formally recognised the PRC, leading to substantial trade agreements. This paper examines Chinese trade promotion in the region during the 1960s and early 1970s, contending that commercial ties, particularly Chinese exports to Latin America, were not simply the inevitable outcome of these revolutions and the establishment of diplomatic relations. Policy makers in Beijing and Chinese commercial representatives in Latin America strategically navigated market entry by leveraging cultural promotions, focusing on competitive Chinese products, notably processed foods, and tapping into the Chinese Overseas community as intermediaries. These strategies not only cultivated a favourable image of China in the region but also acquainted Latin American consumers with Chinese brands and products. Moreover, the paper analyzes how Chinese trade promoters recognised and addressed the nuances and disparities among Latin American countries, comprehended the significance of Cuba and Chile within the region, and contextualised Latin America’s position in the global market.

New Thoughts and Prospects on the Role of City Diplomacy in China-Korea Relations under the Unprecedented Changes of the Past Century

Today's world is accelerating in the unprecedented changes of the century, China's emergence in the field of science and technology, the United States to Japan and South Korea to set up a chip alliance to limit China's scientific and technological development, which is a layer of complex geopolitical relations of the Northeast Asian region of the country's diplomatic outlook fog. China and South Korea, the two countries have a long history of interaction, especially since the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries rapid development of economic and trade exchanges, to the development of the two countries have brought significant benefits. With the evolution of the world pattern, especially the two major powers of China and the United States in the Asia-Pacific region of the strategic game, South Korea is faced with the dilemma of choosing sides, to the interaction between China and South Korea has brought great instability, to the humanities exchanges, economic and trade exchanges between the two countries also caused great inconvenience, affecting the two countries of the political, economic and diplomatic relations interaction. In the face of many dilemmas, the role of city diplomacy has become an effective way to maintain and promote normal exchanges between China and South Korea, and city diplomacy will make great contributions to the stability of China-South Korea relations.

한국 정부의 화교에 대한 제도적 차별과 화교 사회의 인식 및 대응

The purpose of this paper is to examine What kind of institutional discrimination did the government of South Korea against Overseas Chinese in Korea from the 1960s to the mid-1990s, and how Overseas Chinese community recognized and responded to such a discrimination. The materials mainly used for these analysis are ‘Han Hwa Monthly Magazine’ and ‘Qiao Sheng Monthly Magazine’ published by Overseas Chinese in Seoul. Overseas Chinese community was very critical of the government’s institutional discrimination, such as restrictions on residence, restrictions on acquisition and ownership of real estate, and farmland. Chinese community responded in various ways to improve or abolish the government’s institutional discrimination based on the fact that Overseas Chinese is not just foreigners. When Korea-China Friendship Treaty was signed in 1965, Overseas Chinese community attempted to demand and achieve the abolition of various institutional discrimination through the Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in Korea. As government of South Korea concerned that acceptance of their requests would guarantee their vested rights, and provide a foundation for developing their economy, their requests were rejected. As a result, they were treated equally as other foreigners. And just before the establishment of diplomatic relations between Korea and the People’s Republic of China, Overseas Chinese Association of Seoul strongly tried to request abolition of restrictions on real estate acquisition through the Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) to be ended in vain. They had the nationality of the Republic of China (Taiwan). They were very dissatisfied with their government which failed to fulfill their requests.

Hungarian coaches in Cold War Cuba

ABSTRACT This essay will examine Cold War sport links between two relatively small-sized, satellite countries: Hungary and Cuba, via the activities of Hungarian coaches on the island. These started in the 1960s after the establishment of diplomatic relations and show a concentration in the first half of and the middle of the 1970s. The investigation aims to find out the main reasons and objectives for the presence of Hungarian sport professionals on the island as well as to evaluate the impact of their work. The study begins with providing a brief overview of the evolution of the foreign relations of the Socialist bloc in the 1950s and 1960s and within this context, of Hungarian-Cuban bilateral links, finally narrowing down the analysis on sport relations. In this context, two case studies are presented: one on football and the other on water polo, traditional fields of success for Hungarians, but little known / not popular on the island. The investigation – based on documents of the Hungarian National Archive and contemporary press articles – aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of international (sport) relations in the 1960s and 1970s, adding both to Sport History and New Cold War Studies.

Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between Czechoslovakia and the Holy See After the Creation of Czechoslovakia in the Fall of 1918

The present study deals with the establishment and development of diplomatic relations between Czechoslovakia and the Holy See immediately after the creation of Czechoslovakia in the fall of 1918 which underwent a dramatic and turbulent change. The most acute questions to discuss included the filling of Czech and Slovak bishopric thrones, the Church administration in Slovakia and the matters of Church education while the filling of the bishopric thrones in the Czech lands and Slovakia proved to be of crucial importance for the proper functioning of the Church administration in Czechoslovakia. The study is based on source material, mainly of diplomatic nature, from the Archive of the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Prague and the Vatican archives, the study reconstructs the character, form and transformation of diplomatic relations between the young Republic and the headquarters of the Catholic Church in Rome at the turn of the 1910s and 1920s. Extensive archival funds have been confronted with numerous literature sources, including contemporary history texts.

Development of The Arts in China and Belarus in the Context of State Policy

In the history of international relations, cooperation in the field of art is closely connected with the foreign policy aspect of the development of interstate relations. As Belarusian-Chinese interaction deepens, the cultural factor has become one of the important aspects influencing bilateral relations. This article notes that over the 30 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Belarus and China, cultural cooperation has gone through different periods. The history of the development of contacts in the field of art between the two countries is examined, the achievements and current problems faced by both countries in this area are analyzed. An example of cooperation between Belarus and China in the field of art represented by the National Gallery of Belarus and the National Art Museum of China is noted.

Vietnamese-Chinese tourism Cooperation 1991-2022

The study is devoted to the cooperation between Vietnam and China in the field of tourism from 1991 to 2022. The relevance of the topic is considered due to the long-term historical relations between the two countries, which play a key role in the regional context. With the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1950 and their normalization in 1991, relations have become stronger and more stable, covering various fields, including tourism. The object of the study is the cooperation between Vietnam and China in the field of tourism, and the subject includes directions, formats, mechanisms and prospects of cooperation over the specified period. The purpose of the work is to identify the specifics and analyze trends in the development of this cooperation, highlighting the historical background, formats of cooperation, directions of tourist flows, mechanisms of interaction and development prospects. This study is based on the theory of international relations, in particular, liberalism, to analyze the dynamics of Vietnamese-Chinese relations in the context of tourism in the period from 1991 to 2022. The study was conducted using systemic and socio-cultural approaches, as well as using mixed methods, including data analysis, interviews and a literature review. The scientific novelty of the study lies in a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the modern international context on Vietnamese-Chinese cooperation in the field of tourism. The main focus is on the prospects for sustainable development of the tourism industry, emphasizing the importance of qualitative and quantitative improvements. The findings of the study point to the active development of tourism cooperation between Vietnam and China over the past 30 years, noting the constant growth in the number of tourists. Cooperation is expanding and deepening through the use of various mechanisms, such as improving the legal framework, improving the quality of services, developing new routes, developing tourism products, introducing smart tourism and protecting cultural heritage. Thus, the article provides a comprehensive look at Vietnamese-Chinese tourism cooperation, emphasizing its importance for both countries in the context of integration and development of the region.

Soviet Diplomatic Efforts to Prevent Hungary’s Alignment with Germany in World War II (1939– 1941)

The history of Soviet-Hungarian interactions from the establishment of diplomatic relations until Hungary joined World War II alongside the Axis powers offers valuable insights into the dynamics between small and great powers, as well as the efforts of small European states, particularly Hungary, to navigate their national interests in foreign policy amidst Nazi Germany's encroachments. This period was defined by two primary factors: the Hungarian political elite, led by Miklós Horthy, sought to join a quasi-"crusade" against Comintern Soviet Russia, while simultaneously striving to avoid deep involvement in major conflicts between the great powers. This dual approach aligned with the policies of Hitler's Western appeasers, who aimed to redirect German expansion eastward. In this geopolitical scenario, American and Western European actors (including Great Britain and France) were relegated to the role of observers, anticipating a prolonged conflict between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that would drain both. Hungary, as strategized by Budapest, hoped to secure a position among these observers, avoiding direct conflict participation, and to later engage in territorial reconfiguration post-World War II. However, the reality in Europe by the early 1940s diverged significantly, with Western powers (the USA and Great Britain) unable to redirect Hitler's global domination ambitions eastward. Facing an existential threat, these powers were compelled to enter the war. Against this backdrop, Soviet diplomacy endeavored to deter Hungary's alliance with Nazi Germany. Although ultimately unsuccessful, examining these diplomatic efforts offers valuable lessons in the context of the current evolution towards a multipolar world. 

‘Letters to Taiwanese Compatriots’: The prc’s Unification Ideology and Taiwanese Response in Cross-Strait Communication

Abstract This article presents a political discourse analysis of the People’s Republic of China’s (prc) narration of Taiwan through the cross-Strait epistolary series ‘Letters to Taiwanese Compatriots’ released between 1950 and 2019. This study aims to discern the prc’s intent for domestic and international communication in framing Taiwan’s sovereignty into its own narrative using cultural, ideological, economic, and military appeals. In so doing, it explores the connection between storytelling, political communication, and military operations as evolving through the decades, starting with the cross-Strait crises of the 1950s, China’s establishment of diplomatic relations with foreign countries in the 1970s and its global rise in the last three decades. In the final part, we will analyse the response and several New Year’s addresses by Tsai Ing-wen between 2019 and 2022. This article unravels a crucial difference between the two sides of the Strait, crystallised in the fabrication of a dissimilar understanding of their respective historical, political, and cultural identities.

Trends in Ukraine's foreign trade in the context of complicated international transportation

Introduction. Over the past ten years, there has been a decline in the effectiveness of multilateral cooperation agreements within the WTO, resulting in the growing importance of bilateral trade agreements. The EU countries and the UK are among the most important geographical areas for deepening bilateral cooperation with Ukraine, which has been favourably influenced by trade liberalisation as a result of the signing of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union and the implementation of the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement. Improved terms of trade between Ukraine and Europe, despite the war in Ukraine, ensured positive dynamics of trade turnover, but the commodity structure has undergone significant changes. Recently, a trade embargo was imposed on agricultural products, and the border was closed for the transportation of products through Poland and other countries. In this regard, it is an urgent scientific task to determine the impact of the complication of transport. As well as identifying trends in the further development of foreign trade with partner countries. The purpose of the paper is to іdentificate the changes in export sales routes, as well as trends in Ukraine's foreign economic activity in the context of more complicated international transport. Results. The importance for Ukraine's economy of expanding the scope of foreign economic relations with European countries based on international transport is determined. The author emphasises a number of economic prerequisites and advantages of foreign economic relations between Ukraine and European countries, which determine the trends in the development of foreign trade. The author identifies the important role of continuing institutional and structural reforms in our country, which should be intensified and aimed at strengthening the competitive potential of the national economy. The main stages of integration of foreign economic relations between Ukraine and European countries are highlighted. It is proved that there is a high potential of European integration for the Ukrainian economy. However, in the current conditions of complicated movement of goods and closure of borders by partner countries, this direction of development of the national economy is considered as the main one, with certain difficulties, which will slow down the pace of socio-economic growth and restore the lost. Conclusion. By establishing international economic and trade relations and sales channels, Ukraine's foreign trade can develop and function effectively. National economies of different countries interact through the establishment of diplomatic relations, cooperation agreements, and the creation of intergovernmental associations. After analysing all the factors, it can be argued that establishing economic and political ties with the world's leading countries and increasing the level of foreign trade is possible by stepping up efforts in the most promising sectors of the global economy. Foreign economic and trade relations contribute to the growth of the national economy, acceleration of scientific and technological progress, and improvement of living standards.

Media Memory Construction and Cultural Sustainability

The sustainable development of culture is often regarded as the core of cultural security and uniqueness. The homogenization of culture brought about by globalization poses a threat to cultural diversity and sustainability as well as to the uniqueness of national cultures to varying degrees. In this context, pan-Asian countries have taken various measures to protect their cultural identity and avoid the breaking in cultural intergenerational inheritance. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea in 1992 and the establishment of South Korea’s “Building up the Nation with Culture” strategy in 1998, Korean culture has developed Hallyu, or the “Korean wave”, in China and other countries via K-dramas, K-pop, and K-movies, establishing a significant recognition of K-culture worldwide. Although memory can be both personal and social, shared cultural memory is a core element for integrating individuals. Compared with individual memory, media memory has more advantages in continuity and stability, and is almost naturally endowed with social and cultural significance. Therefore, constructing media memory to achieve sustainable cultural development is a feasible and reasonable method. This paper reviews the influence and evolution of K-culture in China, and takes K-content media and its acceptance in China as an example to explore the logic and significance of media memory construction of culture and enhancement of cultural influence, especially on foreign audiences. In addition, from the perspective of media memory construction, the paper examines the reasons for the gradual decline of K-culture’s influence in China, and argues that media memory construction is a practical way to sustain cultural influence, so as to form common experiences that relevant parties can learn from.

한국외교와 전략적 자율성

This study analyzed the Korea’s improvement of relations with Hungary, which was completed before the end of the Cold War, by applying the concept of strategic autonomy. This phenomenon is not easily explained by a realistic approach that emphasizes the international structure and the power of the great powers. This study emphasizes the need to examine Korea’s internal diplomatic capabilities in order to explain the improvement of relations between Korea and Hungary. To this end, this study presents strategic autonomy as an alternative analysis concept, which has not been dealt with in terms of the performance of Korean diplomacy. As a result of the analysis, Korea’s improvement of relations with Hungary is explained in terms of strategic autonomy in that it proactively achieved the goal of Korean foreign policy, establishment of diplomatic relations with the communist bloc, in cooperation with its ally, the United States.

China-Malaysia Relations and The Belt and Road Initiative

Malaysia and China are good neighbors and good partners across the sea. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, the exchanges and cooperation between the two countries in various fields have achieved fruitful results. Thanks to the solid foundation laid by Malaysia and China, the Belt and Road Initiative has achieved remarkable results, benefiting both countries. Both countries are committed to promoting regional and international peace, stability, and development, and will continue to jointly advocate multilateralism and oppose trade protectionism and unilateralism. This paper explores the friendly relations between China and Malaysia from the perspective of the Belt and Road Initiative by reviewing and analyzing the achievements made in the political, economic, and cultural fields in the cooperation between China and Malaysia.

Kul'turno-gumanitarnye obmeny mezhdu Kitaem i Uzbekistanom v ramkah iniciativy «Odin poyas, odin put'»: dostizheniya, problemy i rekomendacii

Due to the special geographical location on the territory of modern Uzbekistan since ancient times there have been cultural clashes between East and West. Today, cooperation between China and Uzbekistan in the humanitarian sphere is of great importance and is a continuation of the glorious history of cultural exchanges along the Great Silk Road. In the 30 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations and within the framework of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, humanitarian cooperation between China and Uzbekistan has brought positive results, with a number of challenges and opportunities.

50 Years of the South Korea–India Relationship: Retrospect and Prospect

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea (hereafter referred to as Korea) and India in 1973, their bilateral relationship has made significant progress. This year marks the 50th anniversary of their diplomatic partnership, which calls for a scholarly examination of the developments in Korea-India relations over the last five decades, and their future prospects. This special issue’s introductory paper provides a concise overview of the evolution of Korea–India relationships and introduces the other papers in the issue, emphasizing their significance in understanding the trajectory of the relationships. The primary goal of this introductory paper is to make two contributions: First, it aims to enrich the existing literature on India–Korea relations; and second, it provides key insights for policymakers to strengthen India–Korea ties in a new global order.

The Current Situation and Optimized path of Higher Education Development in the China and the Republic of Sudan under the Belt and Road Initiative

Since the Belt and Road Initiative was proposed in 2013, receiving abundantly enthusiastic as well as positive responses within the international community, especially the Arab countries along the Belt and Road, and including the Republic of Sudan in north-eastern Africa. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the Sudan 58 years ago, the two countries have achieved a series of achievements in the field of higher education. The mutual visits and exchanges between them are also gradually increasing. With the development of the times and the continuous deepening of bilateral relations, the cooperation and exchanges of higher education between the two countries are facing some new difficulties. The purpose of this article is to analyze these dilemmas and propose the optimized path for the development of Sino-Sudan higher education cooperation under the “Belt and Road” initiative.

A Study of Russian Artifacts in the Collection of Imperial Palace in the Qing Dynasty

Abstract This article systematically examines the Russian cultural relics in the collection of the Qing imperial palace and analyzes the remnants of interactions between the Qing court and the Russian court during the reigns of Peter the Great, Nicholas I, and Nicholas II. Russian cultural relics witnessed significant historical events such as the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Russia, exchange of envoys, and the signing of a series of treaties. They carried the mission of promoting the national cultures and advantageous industries of both countries at that time. In addition, these cultural relics have high aesthetic value and contain reliable and rich historical information.

다중 FTA를 활용한 한⋅중 비즈니스 모델 연구: 소비재 수출을 중심으로

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1992, China has developed into Korea's largest exporter. With the Korea-China FTA in 2015 and the RCEP in 2020, conditions have been created for Korean exporters to China to selectively utilize multiple FTA structures. In this regard, this paper studied guidelines and business models for Korean consumer goods exporters to utilize multiple FTAs. First, we designed a guideline by selectively utilizing multiple FTAs based on the criteria for determining the country of origin. In addition, ① a model by changing and combining the composition of raw materials among food products exported to China, ② a model to which the HS code was changed and applied by adjusting the composition of raw materials among foods exported to China, ③ a model that was changed to a classification favorable to the Korea-China FTA through a change in the HS code classification, ④ a model that reduced customs clearance costs by utilizing conditions for exemption from submission of certificates were suggested.

Foreign Economic Relations of China and Russia and Prospects of Sino-Russian Economic and Trade Cooperation

Over the past 30 years, economic globalization has significantly increased the pace of global economic growth, allowing emerging market economies to gain opportunities for economic development and economic modernization. After joining the WTO, China and Russia accelerated the development of foreign economic relations, while promoting the reform of the domestic economic and trade system, especially the signing of a number of bilateral and multilateral free trade agreements, which, in turn, gave a new impetus to the development of the world economy. In recent years, economic globalization has increasingly been challenged by unilateralism and trade protectionism. The attempt by the United States to use the Russian-Ukrainian conflict to divide the world economy is the biggest problem facing economic globalization now and in the future. China and Russia have always been firm supporters of globalization, opposing economic hegemony, unilateral sanctions and any actions that divide the world economy. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Russia, with the continuous improvement of bilateral relations, economic and trade cooperation has repeatedly gone against the tide to help the two countries achieve economic development and overcome the economic crisis. Against the background of repeated local outbreaks of the Covid-19 epidemic in China and tough sanctions against Russia, Sino-Russian economic and trade cooperation continues to trend towards rapid growth. In the future, China and Russia will seek new opportunities for cooperation in the face of uncertainty and contribute to the sustainable development of the global economic system.

The History of Chinese-Korean Baduk in Jilin Province

This study explored the development process of Jilin Chinese-Korean Baduk by collecting data on Jilin Chinese-Korean Baduk scattered sporadically around publications such as Jilin Newspaper and Yanbian TV Radio Broadcasting Station to systematically establish the history of Jilin Chinese-Korean Baduk. Through this, the history of Chinese-Korean Baduk in Jilin Province was divided into four stages, and the characteristics and significance of each stage are summarized as follows. First, with the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, a clear definition and district division of the Chinese-Korean people was created, and the Chinese-Korean people of this period learned from the sight of the Japanese playing Baduk before liberation. From this time on, it showed the beginning of Jilin Province Chinese-Korean Baduk. Second, in 1978 Chinese-Korean Baduk started and the peak was the 1984 China-Japan Super Competition. Due to the influence of China-Japan Super Competition, there was also a Baduk class in Jilin Province that taught Baduk to Chinese-Korean for the first time. Baduk competition was also held for Chinese-Korean. Third, the leap period began after the establishment of diplomatic relations between Korea and China in 1992. Many Koreans came to china and among them, there was a Baduk director who taught Baduk, and the language of the Chinese-Korean was similar to that of Korea, so they naturally trained a lot of Chinese-Korean Baduk players. In addition, several Baduk exchanges were conducted by connecting the Korean Baduk community and the Jilin Chinese-Korean Baduk Association. In addition, the Korean director, who teaches Baduk, has a history of sending international students to Korea's Yoo Chang-hyuk and Yang Jae-ho's Baduk Dojo. During this period, the Yanbian Chinese-Korean Autonomous Baduk Association were founded and the Chinese-Korean School in Jilin Province officially promoted Chinese-Korean Baduk. The first official Chinese-Korean Baduk competition hosted by the Yanbian Korean Baduk Autonomous named "Yanbian Chinese-Korean Baduk championship" was held from 1988 to 1995, and the school selected Baduk as a regular subject for first and second graders after school. Fourth, the decline lasted from 2010 to the present. From 2010 to 2020, about 10% of Chinese-Korean living in Jilin Province are living in other cities or foreign countries in China, especially Korea, and the trend is gradually expanding. The decline in the Chinese-Korean population is the biggest reason for the development of Chinese-Korean Baduk. In addition, the Communist Party's “minority national united front” policy also weakens the characteristics of Chinese-Korean.